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    Promoting Critical Thinking in European Higher Education Institutions: towards an educational protocol
    2019-04 - Elen J.; Jiang L.; Huyghe S.; Evers M.; Verburgh A.; et al.
    Critical thinking is considered to be an important goal for European Higher Education Institutions. To support the achievement of this goal, an educational protocol is proposed, which builds on all the outputs developed in the CRITHINKEDU project. That means, it builds on the reviews of the literature, the experiences with new approaches and on ample discussions in the project team. Considerations with regard to the CRITHINKEDU educational protocol As an introduction to the protocol a number of considerations are highlighted. These reveal the strength as well as the limitations of the current protocol. a. The protocol is not static given; it is a construction made at a particular intersection of time and place. Any change in time and place may result in changes with respect to both its particular elements and its structure. b. The protocol is the result of a European project in which a group of staff members of European Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) shared their scholarship. c. The protocol is fundamental and general. It specifies a number of essentials that may guide and promote the development of critical thinking. d. In assessing and using the protocol, the specific meaning given to critical thinking in this endeavour needs to be considered. e. Any initiative to support critical thinking must be of high quality. This means that in the design of the initiative, the best possible ‘evidence’ is considered. Similarly, it is presumed that the development of critical thinking remains consistent with highly valued ethical principles. An educational protocol to support the development of critical thinking This educational protocol reflects a historically situated, operational understanding of the theoretical and empirical research on critical thinking on the one hand, and actual experiences with developing critical thinking on the other. The educational protocol rests on two major claims: 1) students will develop their critical thinking by explicitly engaging in appropriate learning activities, and 2) becoming stronger in critical thinking requires repeated engagement in critical thinking processes. The educational protocol has three parts: goals, conditions and supportive interventions. Goals In order to support the development of critical thinking, critical thinking has to be a goal of education. This is shown by: • At the institutional level: A clear mission statement recognising critical thinking as an important goal and explaining how it can be accomplished. • At the teaching program level: A clear description of critical thinking as an important goal of the teaching program, detailing how it can be reached. • At the course level: A clear description of critical thinking as an important learning outcome, explaining how it can be realized. In the above, ‘clear’ means that an explicit clarification (by referring to the relevant literature) of the meaning of critical thinking is provided. In other words, the goals are explicit and transparent; they can be read and understood by all those involved. In the above, ‘important’ means that not reaching the goal would be considered a failure. At the institutional level, it means that the institution would not be accredited unless the goal was realized. At the teaching program level, it means that a student could not graduate unless the goal is realized. At the course level it means that a student could not progress unless evidence of critical thinking is provided. In other words, considering critical thinking as an important goal implies that it is part of assessment and evaluation. Given substantial conceptual and methodological differences between the fields and the disciplines, it is to be expected that clear descriptions of critical thinking as an important goal at the teaching program and/ or course level will vary between the fields and between the disciplines. Conditions Critical thinking requires that at the institutional, the teaching program and course levels, critical thinking is continuously and congruently allowed and made possible. ‘Continuously’ implies that the development of critical thinking is not a one-shot operation. Critical thinking does not occur automatically or effortlessly. It needs continuous practice, reinforcement and support. ‘Congruently’ implies that all actions with respect to critical thinking are aligned to the goals. Allowing critical thinking implies that critical thinking cannot have a negative consequence for the institute, its staff and its students. More specifically, it requires autonomy of the institution, the staff and the students who are enabled to think for themselves and with an authorial voice. Making critical thinking possible implies that the resources needed for critical thinking are made available. It implies that students can flourish in an environment that is well-designed and offers them the time needed for development. It also implies that teaching programs can operate within a transparent and open structure, and institutions can work within clear legal frameworks. Supportive interventions Research suggests that with regard to the development of critical thinking (skills, dispositions or combinations of both), four categories of intervention (to model, to induce, to declare, to surveil) can be identified. For all supportive interventions the rule is that the support gradually withdraws. • To model Critical thinking development is supported when the institute (through its management structures), the teaching program (through its representatives) and the course (through its teachers) shows what it is to think critically. This can take various forms. • To induce Critical thinking development is supported by inducing critical thinking. This implies that open questions are raised, ill-structured tasks are provided, complex problems are discussed and/or authentic, real-world issues remain at the core. What ‘inducing’ entails and how it can be done may vary for different fields and disciplines and may be done in different ways. • To declare Critical thinking development is supported by declaring or making explicit what is at stake, what strategies can be used and what criteria are to be met. Declaring can be either spoken or written, but in all the cases it is both explicit and specific. What ‘declaring’ entails and how it can be done may also vary in different fields and disciplines. • To surveil Critical thinking development is difficult. To increase the probability that sustained action is taken, surveillance may help. Surveillance monitors the ongoing efforts and activities, provides feedback on those efforts and activities and helps to keep the efforts and activities oriented towards the (development of) critical thinking. While differing in its concrete content and form among fields and disciplines, surveillance will always entail monitoring, feedback and orientation.
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    The CRITHINKEDU European course on critical thinking education for university teachers: from conception to delivery
    2018-05 - Dominguez, Caroline Elisabeth (coord.); Poce, Antonella; Agrusti, Francesco; Re, Maria Rosaria; Lai Jiang; Huyghe, Steven; Evers, Marleen; Elen, Jan; Verburgh, An; Dominguez, Caroline Elisabeth; Cruz, Gonçalo; Silva, Maria Helena Ribeiro dos Santos; Morais, Maria Da Felicidade Araújo; Nascimento, Maria Manuel; Payan-Carreira, Rita; Dimitriadou, Catherine; Pnevmatikos, Dimitris; Avgitidou, Sofia; Palaigeorgiou, George
    Within the scope of the CRITHINKEDU project1 , this intellectual output (Output 3) reports the experience of conceiving and delivering a European training course on Critical Thinking (CT) education for university teachers. It draws on the proposal of the “European inventory of critical thinking skills and dispositions for the 21st century” and the “Preliminary guidelines for quality in critical thinking education” - both presented in the two previous intellectual outputs of the project (Dominguez, 2018a, 2018b). This report is targeted to each leading partner institution or to any Higher Education (HE) institution which desire to later replicate this training course at the local level, to faculty staff interested in the implementation of CT teaching practices and learning activities in their classroom. Deployments within the CRITHINKEDU project will be carried-out as part of the fourth and following intellectual output (Output 4). The course herein described includes training sessions to promote and support quality teaching on CT. It provides educational resources and practical training activities within different key topics, such as learning design, teaching methods and CT assessment. By engaging teachers with effective instructional design principles, teaching strategies, and assessment criteria for CT, they were encouraged to integrate them in the daily teaching practice. The first CRITHINKEDU course was open to a limited number of participants: each partner contacted an average of 4 university teachers for a total number of 65 participants (counting also the coaches) from 9 different European countries (Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Portugal, Romania and Spain). The course took place in Rome (Italy) from the 29th of January 2018 to the 4th of February 2018. Considered as a pilot experience, this course was more than a simple opportunity for group work and exchange of experiences among higher education teachers interested in CT education. Based on a post-course questionnaire, all the participants witnessed a high degree of satisfaction: 93% of the respondents appreciated the plenary sessions held during the course. The course proved useful to the professional practice of more than 80% of the participants. The participants evaluated the course as a useful way to significantly improve the following skills: Collaboration, Communication, Critical Thinking and, mainly, Instructional Design. More than 86% of respondents intend to use what they have learnt in the CRITHINKEDU course once back in their institution, and more than 74% of them would recommend this course to other colleagues. The CRITHINKEDU course mainly confirmed the importance and utility of the “Preliminary proposal of guidelines for quality in CT education” according to the key points already highlighted in previous outputs (namely Output 1 and Output 2), as reported in the results of the post-course questionnaire submitted to all the participants. Namely, the results obtained showed a strong need to provide more teaching resources and practical examples to support the integration of CT educational practices at the course level. Moreover, participants were particularly concerned with the way of assessing students’ CT in their curricular units, requesting more examples and practical tools to assess the level of students’ CT. Among future interventions, the CRITHINKEDU course is expected to be replicated in the participants' countries (adapted to local needs). Thus, it will be possible to analyse in more depth its impact on teachers’ professional development. Also, teachers will be invited to participate in different deployment scenarios, supporting the development of the “European guidelines for critical thinking education in Higher Education Institutions” (which will be delivered in Output 4).
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    A european review on critical thinking educational practices in higher education institutions
    2018 - Dominguez, Caroline Elisabeth (coord.); Dumitru, Daniela; Bigu, Dragos; Elen, Jan; Lai iang; Railienè, Asta; Penkauskienè, Daiva; Papathanasiou, Ioanna V.; Tsaras, Konstantinos; Fradelos, Evangelos C.; Ahern, Aoife; McNally, Ciaran; O'Sullivan, John; Verburgh, An; Jarošová, Eva; Lorencová, Hana; Poce, Antonella; Agrusti, Francesco; Re, Maria Rosaria; Puig, Blanca; Blanco, Paloma; Mosquera, Inés; Crujeiras-Pérez, Beatriz; García-Rodeja Gayoso; García-Rodeja Gayoso, Isabel; Dominguez, Caroline (coord.); Cruz, Gonçalo; Silva, Maria Helena Ribeiro dos Santos; Moraís, Maria Da Felicidade Araújo; Nascimento, Maria Manuel; Payan-Carreira, Rita; Dimitriadou, Catherine; Pnevmatikos, Dimitris; Avgitidou, Sofia; Palaigeorgiou, George
    Within the scope of CRITHINKEDU project, this report is directed to university teachers, pedagogical support teams and institutional leaders, providing an overall understanding on how European Higher Education Institutions (EHEI) foster Critical Thinking (CT), taking into account both the current educational intervention studies reported in the literature and teachers’ educational practices. Adopting a mixed method research design, 46 papers from the literature were reviewed and 53 interviews with university teachers from 9 European countries were carried out. The analysis comprised both studies and teachers’ interviews from 4 different professional fields, namely Biomedical Sciences, STEM (Sciences, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics), Social Sciences and the Humanities. The key findings are in line with previous reviews (Abrami et al., 2008; Behar-Horenstein & Niu, 2011; Tiruneh, Verburgh & Elen, 2014; Abrami et al., 2015): 1. Research on CT Education is a growing field within the European Higher Education (EHE) landscape. There is an increasing interest in how teaching strategies may influence the development of CT, although with scarce evidence on which characteristics of teaching strategies and learning environments better support the development of students’ CT; 2. CT dispositions are undervalued by EHE teachers. CT intervention studies and educational practices mainly address the development of CT skills in students and seem to neglect the value of CT dispositions and the importance of considerable practice, effort and long-term interventions; 3. CT instruction within subject-matter courses is the most used approach by EHE teachers. The reported studies and practices tend to be based mostly on an Immersive CT approach (Ennis, 1997), in which CT principles are not made explicit to students, assuming that the skills will be acquired once they engage in the subject-matter instruction. However, the clear identification and definition of CT skills to be developed are critical elements for the effectiveness of CT interventions, to be recognized by the students and taught directly by the instructors; 4. Active Learning methodologies, Teachers’ training and Students’ support are fundamental for CT development. Lecture-Discussion Teaching (LDT) and Problem-Based Learning (PBL) are the most used strategies reported both in the literature and by the teachers, suggesting that engaging students with active learning methodologies seems to help achieving higher improvements on CT development. Furthermore, the use of real-world situations and/or workplace-based scenarios are commonly used to support teaching and learning processes. Here, evidence points out that not only do CT-driven materials have a higher impact on students’ CT outcomes, but that teachers’ training on CT is also crucial aspects for effective CT development; 5. EHE teachers have difficulties to assess their students’ CT development. Both literature and teachers reported several difficulties in relation to assessing students’ CT progression. In particular, most of the studies and practices presented qualitative assessment methods, based mainly on students’ and teachers’ perceptions, and few adopted formal CT tests, rubrics or research designs with an experimental/quasi-experimental nature - in which the effect size of the intervention was measured. Besides that, it is clear that researchers and teachers have critical limitations to assess CT students’ permanency (the capacity of CT skills and dispositions to remain active in students after the intervention) and generalization (the ability to apply CT skills and dispositions in other contexts, such as the labour market or everyday life). Also, different difficulties were detected at the pedagogical, methodological and organizational levels. These highlight the major role of EHEI in the provision of adequate structural settings and policies to nurture teachers and students in active learning and CT development. Several implications for practice are outlined at three main levels: organizational, programme and course levels. Resulting in the main outcome and novelty of the current report, from the comparison between the first CRITHINKEDU’ intellectual output - “A European collection of the Critical Thinking skills and dispositions needed in different professional fields for the 21st century” (CRITHINKEDU_O1, 2018) - and this review (CRITHINKEDU_O2), a preliminary proposal of guidelines for quality in CT education in EHEI is presented. The focus of this proposal is on quality assurance related to CT learning and teaching in higher education, including the overall process of designing, conceiving and delivering CT instruction (and relevant associations to research). This does not exclude the already existing institutional processes to ensure and improve the quality of teaching, learning and research activities, but instead it constitutes a specific and complementary path to ensure CT learning environments in which the content of programmes, learning opportunities and facilities are fit for this purpose. Some issues were encountered when conducting this research, related to the research methodology (e.g., keywords used for papers selection), the research sample (e.g., teachers’ background or experience on CT instruction), or even data analysis procedures (e.g., language barriers in the process of data translation). However, after overcoming these difficulties, this report sheds light on how the current educational interventions and practices foster CT skills and dispositions in European Higher Education (EHE) students, on the barriers and on what is now important to focus on to improve CT education.
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    Casos de Estudo em Estratégia e Marketing - Promovendo o Debate Empresarial
    2016-12 - Au-Yong Oliveira, Manuel; Gonçalves, Ramiro; Martins, José; Moreira, Fernando; Branco, Frederico
    Os casos de estudo sobre organizações e empresas são um veículo de comunicação de excelência na área da gestão. Este livro reúne uma série de casos de estudo que abordam a inovação e a diferenciação, a internacionalização, o marketing, a evolução estratégica, os modelos de negócio (e como são afetados pela tecnologia), as aquisições de empresas, e tem ainda um caso de estudo sobre a responsabilidade social (área de crescente importância para todo o tipo de organizações). A estratégia e o marketing são áreas de saber muito próximas, sendo dadas em conjunto em várias escolas de negócio no mundo inteiro. Abordam-se os seguintes conceitos associados à estratégia e ao marketing neste livro: • Ambiente externo e o mercado • Ambiente interno e a empresa • A concorrência e a necessidade da inovação • A importância da marca • Responsabilidade social • Programas promocionais • Comportamentos de compra de consumidores • Tecnologia • Lealdade • Canais de distribuição • O preço e a sua influência na compra e no posicionamento • Previsão do sucesso futuro e compreensão do passado Assim entende-se que o marketing é muito mais do que simplesmente publicidade, relações públicas, e / ou vendas. Englobará também, por exemplo, a área dos novos produtos, que deverão ser lançados, segundo diversos autores, periodicamente por empresas e com o envolvimento do departamento de marketing, quer no seu desenvolvimento, quer na sua divulgação e colocação no mercado. O marketing envolve a criação de seguidores leais de empresas, como a Apple conseguiu fazer com os seus produtos e serviços inovadores – tais como o iPod, iPhone, MacBook, iPad, e iTunes, entre outros. Por outro lado, a estratégia envolve clientes e o estudo do mercado enquanto fonte de riqueza que justifica a existência das empresas. Envolve analisar as oportunidades e ameaças no ambiente externo e envolve também analisar igualmente as forças e as fraquezas da empresa, ao nível interno. Para este fim existem numerosas ferramentas, tais como a análise SWOT, a análise PEST, a análise das cinco forças de Porter, o marketing mix (os 4Ps), e a segmentação, que são utilizadas neste livro de estudos de caso. Quando se fala do âmbito do marketing este é sem dúvida de âmbito largo, incluindo frequentemente áreas diversas de conhecimento tais como comportamento de consumidor, gestão de vendas, gestão de produto, comunicação de marketing, marketing comparativo, marketing social, a eficiência/produtividade de sistemas de marketing, ética no marketing, o papel do marketing no desenvolvimento económico, embalagens, marketing de serviços, pesquisa em marketing, assuntos societais em marketing, venda por retalhistas, venda por grossistas, o marketing internacional, o marketing de commodities [uma matéria prima ou produto primário agrícola que pode ser comprado e vendido, tal como cobre ou café” (Oxford Dictionaries online)], e a distribuição física (Hunt, 2002). Mais recentemente o marketing veio a incluir o mundo digital, abrangendo as redes sociais como o Facebook, mas não só. Também o Google é capaz de dirigir publicidade aos seus consumidores de forma muito apurada na era em que não temos mais segredos para os marketers (e hackers) profissionais. A Amazon.com também é capaz de memorizar comportamentos de compra e preferências fazendo eficazmente o cross-selling dos seus produtos (sugerindo produtos alternativos e complementares com grande eficácia) – como se conhecesse pessoalmente e intimamente os seus clientes. O corpo do saber em marketing dirige-se a organizações do setor com objetivos de lucro (profit sector), e dirige-se também a organizações do setor sem objetivos de lucro / sem fins lucrativos (nonprofit sector). Uma pergunta de marketing, enquanto disciplina aplicada, poderá ser: “Como deverá a Jones Toy Company [empresa de brinquedos] alocar o seu orçamento de publicidade entre os vários meios [media] para chegar ao seu mercado alvo primário, crianças com menos de doze anos de idade?” (tradução de Hunt, 2002, p.53). O marketing deverá procurar, no entanto, responder a outro tipo de questões também, que levem ao avanço do corpo do saber em marketing - é necessário realizar investigação original em marketing, indo assim de encontro aos objetivos das universidades que albergam o marketing (Hunt, 2002). Este livro surge devido a um esforço de aproximação entre docentes e alunos e de trabalho feito na universidade. As universidades (tal como nos chama a atenção Hunt, 2002), em particular ligadas ao ensino da gestão; 1) vendem conhecimento aos alunos [através do ensino, dentro e fora da sala de aula, e incentivando desde logo a ligação às organizações], mas também 2) armazenam conhecimento [em bibliotecas, físicas e online], 3) fabricando também conhecimento [através da investigação científica, que poderá ser mais teórica, prática, ou um misto de ambas], que devem 4) procurar transferir para as empresas e o mercado. Esperamos que vos agrade a diversidade de casos oferecida e que contribua para a discussão sobre estratégia e sobre o marketing. REFERÊNCIAS Hunt, S.D. (2002). Foundations of marketing theory – Toward a general theory of marketing, M.E.Sharpe. Oxford Dictionaries online.
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    Pensamento crítico na educação. Desafios atuais
    2015-07-07 - Dominguez, Caroline; Morais, Eva; Morais, Felicidade; Cruz, Gonçalo; Pinto Lopes, José; Silva, Maria Helena; Monteiro, Maria João; Nascimento, Maria Manuel; Catarino, Paula; Payan-Carreira, Rita; Marques Vieira, Rui
    Embora conste das políticas educativas, a promoção e desenvolvimento de capacidades de pensamento crítico são pouco valorizados a nível curricular, seja no Ensino Pré-Universitário ou no Ensino Superior, insistindo-se ainda demasiado na memorização, evocação, transmissão e reprodução de conhecimentos. Falta, pois, estabelecer um foco concreto na promoção destas capacidades, que não são intuitivas e que devem ser trabalhadas. Desde o Jardim de Infância até ao nível do Ensino Superior têm vindo a ser promovidas várias iniciativas, mas ainda são escassas. Urge potenciar o desenvolvimento da reflexão e da ação nesta área, para consolidar a inclusão destas capacidades de forma interdisciplinar numa perspetiva de maior autonomia e de responsabilização dos alunos no processo de aprendizagem, de transição para o mercado de trabalho e de aprendizagem ao longo da vida. No Ensino Superior, e apesar das iniciativas desenvolvidas em algumas das instituições nacionais e europeias, há ainda um longo caminho a percorrer para integrar o ensino do pensamento crítico nas unidades curriculares dos diferentes cursos, que passará por uma maior articulação entre o desenvolvimento destas capacidades e os conteúdos de aprendizagem, e ainda pela investigação, criação de parcerias e redes de trabalho que rentabilizem recursos e aumentem o impacto das suas atividades. O desenvolvimento do pensamento crítico na educação é um desafio que envolve um acordo sobre a natureza das capacidades do pensamento crítico, um trabalho sobre as disposições do pensador crítico, as áreas de aplicação/transferibilidade, as estratégias de ensino e a avaliação dos resultados da aprendizagem. Este livro agrega as reflexões de vários autores, docentes e investigadores, sobre as seguintes temáticas: a Conceptualização e Dimensões do Pensamento Crítico, Formação/Desenvolvimento de Estratégias e Recursos Promotores do Pensamento Crítico, o Papel/Uso das Novas Tecnologias como Instrumentos Facilitadores do Pensamento Crítico, a Avaliação do Pensamento Crítico, a Relação entre o Pensamento Crítico e a Criatividade, e o Pensamento Crítico e Literacias. E porque o pensamento crítico pode ser formado desde cedo, este livro está organizado em duas partes, uma mais direcionada para o nível pré-universitário (desde o Jardim de Infância ao Ensino Secundário), outra para o Ensino Superior. É nosso objetivo que este livro contribua para a reflexão e o desenvolvimento de caminhos que melhorem e promovam a qualidade do ensino e, mais especificamente, a aprendizagem do pensamento crítico.